Impacts of Petroleum Exploration, Extraction and Transportation

Impacts of Petroleum Exploration, Extraction and Transportation (M54GED) Spheres of the Environment Dr. Babatunde Anifowose Email: [email protected] RM: GE407 Session structure: • Definition and classification of the Environment • Spheres of Environment - Atmosphere - Hydrosphere - Lithosphere - Ecosphere - Anthrosphere • Spheres Interaction and Environmental Receptors • Introduction to basic and operating principles of Environment Impact Assessment Intended Learning outcomes: At the end of this session, you should be able to: 1. Assess the classification of the environment 2. Evaluate different spheres of the environment and their interactions WHAT IS ENVIRONMENT? Ambience, consisting of the physical and biological systems supporting life, including animal, human as well as built environment. “Surroundings in which an organization operates, including air, water, land, natural resources, flora, fauna, humans, and their interrelation” - International Standards Organization CLASSIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENT Environment Biological Environment Physical Environment Atmosphere Lithosphere Culture/Society Hydrosphere Flora Social Environment Fauna Microorganisms Politics Economy SPHERES OF ENVIRONMENT Four broad divisions of the earth’s environment: Atmosphere Zone of air Lithosphere Zone of rock Hydrosphere Zone of water ECOSPHERE Realm of living matter Source: Rodrigue et al. 2009 BIOSPHERE Environmental system could be defined as the set of interactions between the components of the Biosphere (i.e. atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, ecosphere). SPHERES OF ENVIRONMENT contd. Atmosphere Voyager 1 is the farthest man-made object from earth at 18 billion km (120 AU) Strata of the atmosphere as a function of height above the surface Other gases: carbon dioxide, argon, water vapour etc, http://elearning.stkc.go.th/lms/html/earth_science/LOcanada7/701/1_en.htm http://www.fas.org/irp/imint/docs/rst/Sect14/Sect14_1a.html - Stratosphere & troposphere are the main atmospheric interactors of the Biosphere - Atmosphere is key for the spatial diffusion of pollutants - Also a temporary accumulator of pollutants until they precipitate SPHERES OF ENVIRONMENT contd. - Atmosphere is the most rapidly varying of all the spheres - Atmosphere receives water, gases & particles and these are transformed therein - They are then deposited on the lithosphere where they first originated SPHERES OF ENVIRONMENT contd. ‘Ultraviolet A’ rays transmitted through side glass, penetrating the epidermis and upper layers of the dermis – a gradual onset of skin cancer, esp. if UVB: Unilateral Dermatoheliosis Jennifer R.S. Gordon, M.D., and Joaquin C. Brieva, M.D. N Engl J Med 2012; 366:e25April 19, 2012 UVB is linked to higher rate of Photocarcinogenesis SPHERES OF ENVIRONMENT contd. Lithosphere Potassiu Sodium m 3% 3% Calcium 4% Iron 5% Aluminu m 8% Magnesi um 2% Oxygen 47% Silicon 28% Main constituents of Lithosphere Lithosphere is a: • Key source of pollutants e.g. NORM in produced water • Permanent accumulator Only the upper 100 km of the lithosphere interacts directly with the biosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere (Marsh and Grossa 2005) http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/10h.html • • Lithosphere is subdivided into huge tectonic plates and shifts slowly (over millions of years) to shape the earth’s surface environment SPHERES OF ENVIRONMENT contd. Lithosphere SPHERES OF ENVIRONMENT contd. Lithosphere SPHERES OF ENVIRONMENT contd. Lithosphere The crust is only ~0.3% of the earth’s depth, yet hydrocarbon deposits are locked there. • As of 2007, the world’s deepest land-based well was completed by Exxon-Mobil's Russian Co. on Sakhalin Island at ~11.2 km depth • In 2009, BP’s Tiber well (GOM) in U.S. waters at ~10.7 km became the world’s deepest deepwater well with ~1.2 km of water above it. SPHERES OF ENVIRONMENT contd. Hydrosphere Hydrosphere: • Covers ~71% of the earth surface • A major accumulator of pollutants and key vector of diffusion • It constitutes the body of water in all its forms: solid, liquid and gas • Oceans represent > 97% of the earth’s total water; Ice/glaciers: ~2% while Rivers/Lakes, groundwater and vapour: ~1% SPHERES OF ENVIRONMENT contd. Hydrosphere • Seasonal variation in temperature and circulation are induced by hydrosphere • For example, ocean current helps transfer warmth from tropical regions to polar regions e.g. the ITCZ Source: NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory SPHERES OF ENVIRONMENT contd. ECOSPHERE • The earth as an ecosystem is known as ‘ECOSPHERE’ • Serves as temporary accumulator of pollutants and source of pollutants e.g. heavy metals like mercury, lead, arsenic: from natural weathering processes • This occurs within a very intricate set of interactions with the Atmosphere, Lithosphere & Hydrosphere • ECOSPHERE and all its living organisms make-up the Biosphere • Biosphere comprises all living organisms including animals, plants & the dead organic matter produced by them SPHERES OF ENVIRONMENT contd. • In summary: Atmosphere, Lithosphere & Hydrosphere (i.e. ECOSPHERE) + living organisms including human beings constitute the Biosphere • Biosphere exchanges matter and energy with other spheres • This supports the biogeochemical cycling of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus etc. SPHERES OF ENVIRONMENT contd. A 5th sphere of the environment is: Anthrosphere Anthrosphere • Aspect of environment made or modified by humans for their survival (Manahan 2007) • The Anthrosphere is shaped by: - commerce, human dwellings / buildings - movement and transportation networks (spatial interaction) - energy E&P, refining, transportation & distribution - pollution prevention, waste discharge, treatment & disposal techniques SPHERES OF ENVIRONMENT contd. Anthrosphere • Environmental science / mgt. focuses on reducing the flux of pollutants and their impacts from the complex interaction between the Anthrosphere and other spheres Listen to / Watch: Chief Seattle's 1854 Oration about the Environment http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MuJzMu6u-pg&feature=em-share_video_user SPHERES OF ENVIRONMENT contd. • There is also CRYOSPHERE – water in solid state CLASSIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENT Environment Biological Environment Physical Environment Atmosphere Lithosphere Culture/Society Hydrosphere Flora Social Environment Fauna Microorganisms Politics Economy Class Exercise 1 Why is the atmosphere a temporary accumulator of pollutants? Why is the lithosphere a permanent accumulator of pollutants? Why may hydrosphere not be regarded a permanent accumulator of pollutants? INTERACTIONS BETWEEN SPHERES • All the spheres are closely linked and interact with one another • Change in one sphere often leads to a chain reaction, hence leading to change(s) in other spheres • Such changes are called ‘events’ • For example, natural events like heavy flooding results from an upset within the hydrosphere linked to cloud formation in the atmosphere • There are also anthropogenic events like release of GHGs into the atmosphere; and/or oil spill on water body or land • These cause-effect events ensure interaction between spheres ANALYSING INTERACTIONS BETWEEN SPHERES The three critical questions to examine interactions: What sphere caused the event? Sphere Event What are the impacts of the event on the sphere(s)? Event Sphere How will changes in one sphere impact on the other sphere(s)? Sphere Sphere WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO UNDERSTAND THESE INTERACTIONS? • Identify localised / global interaction patterns • Helps predict potential impacts for planning and contingency purposes • Evaluate environmental impacts of projects/activities against potential benefits Class Exercise 2 Having learnt about the five spheres of the environment, develop a conceptual diagram of all possible interactions between the spheres and an event Food for thought! The current ‘balance’ among these complex interactions makes it possible for us to be here and for life to flourish on earth. WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT “Any change to the environment, whether adverse or beneficial, wholly or partially resulting from an organization's activities, products or services” - International Standard Organization any change (due to a project activity) that has effect on an environmental receptor which may be observed through the relevant environmental parameter/indicator WHAT IS AN ENVIRONMENTAL RECEPTOR Environmental receptor (synonym of ‘environmental resource’) refers to any feature of the environment – natural or manmade, renewable or depletable resource. It is also ‘any measure or statistic describing a feature of the environment, such as population density or monitored air quality, that might be impacted by a proposed action’ Eccleston and Doub (2012, p.182) WHAT IS AN ENVIRONMENTAL RECEPTOR (contd.) Others have referred to ENVIRONMENTAL RECEPTORS as: Environmental Components Environmental Compartments Environmental Areas WHAT IS AN ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETER or INDICATOR Environmental parameter defines the state or condition of a given environmental receptor as measured through appropriate instrumentation at a point in time or over a period of time. This helps define status/wellness of an environment and to predict potential changes to it as a result of a project or activity. BREAKDOWN OF SPHERES OF THE ENVIRONMENT INTO RECEPTORS / COMPONENTS / COMPARTMENTS / AREAS Table 1: Potential environmental receptors/components/compartments/areas likely to be impacted NO. 1 TYPICAL COMPARTMENTS Ecology SOME OF THE PARAMETERS COVERED Flora, Fauna & Biodiversity displacements as a result of project execution. Water Resources (Hydrology) Geology & Geomorphology Landscape/Landuse, Visual Sensitivity Climate & Meteorology Surface & Groundwater; Water aquifer; Major river crossings; Flow regime; Sediment load; Channel stability; River hydraulics Seismic or lithospheric structure; Earth Surface Processes, Earthquake monitoring; Active or passive volcanoes, fault zones and other geohazards. Relief & Landforms; Topography; Vegetation cover/land cover 8. Archaeology & Cultural Heritage (Aesthetics) Traffic & Transportation Infrastructure Air Quality (Ambient) 9. 10. Noise Soil & Soil Erosion 11. Social, Economic and Demography (incl. attitudes & perception) Historical artefacts; Potential excavation works or sites; Protection of aesthetics Road networks & linkages; Safety infrastructure; Road furniture; Upsurge or increase in traffic resulting to safety risks in specific locations Assessment of air quality data; Onsite monitoring of air quality; Modelling of emissions e.g. at proposed pump stations and gas flare location Background Noise Survey; Ambient noise levels (at night & day) Soil profile; Soil history; Soil pore spaces & porosity level; Soil permeability; Soil content Demographic characteristics of the area. Sources of livelihood prior to project execution and this, in ideal situation, should be improved by project proponents as part of corporate social responsibility. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Rainfall feasibility & intensity; Temperature levels; Weather condition etc. Source: Anifowose et al. (2014) EXAMPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS / INDICATORS Source: http://drs.nio.org/drs/bitstream/2264/2112/6/chap2_3.pdf EXAMPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS / INDICATORS (CONTD.) Source: http://drs.nio.org/drs/bitstream/2264/2112/6/chap2_3.pdf ENVIRONMENTAL BASELINE CONDITION ...is defined as the past, present and likely future state of the environment, assuming that a proposed project is not undertaken, taking into account changes resulting from natural events and from other human activities (after Glasson et al. 2005, p.100). BASIC & OPERATING PRINCIPLES OF IMPACT ASSESSMENT (Source: IAIA 1999) EXAMPLE OF ‘SCOPING’ http://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/pdf/scotland_Quad204_Pro ject_EIA_Scoping_Report_Aug_2010.pdf EXAMPLE OF ‘ALTERNATIVES’ http://www.gdfsuezep.co.uk/~/media/Files/G/GDF-SuezEP/documents/orca-summary-report.pdf HOW ARE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ASSESSED? *Project screening *Scoping *Project Description/Alternatives *Environmental baseline *Identification of key impacts *Prediction of impacts *Evaluation/assessment of impact significance Public consultation and participation *Identification of mitigating measures *Presentation of findings in the EIS Environmental Assessment studies are normally in phases: - Environmental Scoping Study (ESS) *Decision-making - Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) *Post decision monitoring - Environmental Management Plan (EMP) *Review of the EIS *Audit of prediction & mitigation measures Source: Glasson et al. (2005) A generic Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) procedure Class Exercise 3 Evaluate how a bird uses the biosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. Offshore / Onshore Some bibliography and further reading (more on Moodle page) Anifowose, B., Lawler, D., van der Horst, D., and Chapman, L. 2014. Evaluating interdiction of oil pipelines at river crossings using Environmental Impact Assessments. Area 46 (1), 4-17. Beauchemin, S.S., Hamshari, H.O. and Bauer, M.A. 2009. Passive Atmospheric Diffusion with Gaussian Fragmentation. International Journal of Computers and Applications, 31(2):97-108. Canter, L.W. 1996. Environmental impact assessment. McGraw-Hill, International Editions. Dee, N., J. Baker, N. Drobny, K. Duke, and D. Fahringer. 1972. Environmental evaluation system for water resource planning (to Bureau of Reclamation, U.S. Department of Interior). Battelle Columbus Laboratory, Columbus, Ohio, January, 188 pages. Dee, N., J. Baker, N. Drobny, K. Duke, I. Whitman, and D. Fahringer. 1973. An environmental evaluation system for water resource planning. Water Resources Research, Vol. 9, No. 3, June, 523-535. Eccleston, C.J. and Doub, P. 2012. Preparing NEPA Environmental Assessments: A User’s Guide to Best Professional Practices. Taylor & Francis: Boca Raton FL. Ellis, E. and Bledzki, L. (2011) "Biosphere". In: Encyclopedia of Earth. Eds. Cutler J. Cleveland (Washington, D.C.: Environmental Information Coalition, National Council for Science and the Environment). [First published in the Encyclopedia of Earth January 8, 2009; Last revised Date September 10, 2011; Retrieved March 6, 2012 http://www.eoearth.org/article/Biosphere European Commission 1999. Guidelines for the assessment of indirect and cumulative impacts as well as impact interactions. Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxemburg. Glasson J, Therivel R, and Chadwick A (2005) Introduction to environmental impact assessment. 3rd ed. London: Routledge. Leopold, L., Clarke, E., Hanshaw, B. and Balsley, J. 1971. A procedure for evaluating environmental impacts. Washington, DC: US Geological Survey Circular 645. NRDC, National Resources Defence Council 2011. Between a Rock and a Dry Place - The Impact of Oil Shale Development and Climate Change on the Colorado River Basin Water Supply. NRDC Press, New York, Perdicoulis, A. and Glasson, J. 2006. Causal networks in EIA. Environmental Impact Assessment Review 26(6), 553-569. Ponce, V.M. 2009. La Leche river flood control project Lambayeque, Peru - Environmental Impact Assessment. Available at: http://saltonsea.sdsu.edu/task5_eia_part2_090724a.html. accessed on 30 April 2012 Scott M. Reid, Serge Metikosh, and Jim M. Evans 2008. Overview of the River and Stream Crossings Study. In: Environment Concerns in Rights-of-Way Management 8th International Symposium edited by John W. Goodrich-Mahoney, Lawrence Abrahamson, Jennifer Ballard, Susan Tikalsky. Elsevier, 6 Mar 2008 - Science - 855 pages Semmens, D.J., S.N. Miller, M. Hernandez, I.S. Burns, W.P. Miller, D.C. Goodrich, W.G. Kepner, 2004, Automated Geospatial Watershed Assessment (AGWA) - A GISBased Hydrologic Modeling Tool: Documentation and User Manual; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, ARS-1446. Thibodeaux, L.J., Valsaraj, K.T., John, V.T., Papadopoulos, K.D., Pratt, L.R. and Pesika, N.S. 2011. Marine Oil Fate: Knowledge Gaps, Basic Research, and Development Needs; A Perspective Based on the Deepwater Horizon Spill. Environmental Engineering Science 28(2):87-93. US Army Corps of Engineers 2005. Potential Environmental Effects of Oil and Gas Drilling on Great Lakes Resources. Available at: www.lrc.usace.army.mil/GrtLakes/OilGas/Chapter6.pdfSimilar accessed on: 17 March 2011 US DOI 2005. Monell Enhanced Oil Recovery Project. Environmental Assessment EA No. WY-040-EA05-161 USEPA 2004. 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