Cultural construction of multiple gender identities around the world

Full Answer Section

• olynesia: In various Polynesian cultures, such as Samoa, the concept of Fa'afafine exists. Fa'afafine are individuals who are assigned male at birth but are raised and identify as female. They often embrace feminine roles, behaviors, and appearances. Fa'afafine are generally accepted and integrated into Samoan society, playing important roles within families and communities. Their identity is a recognized and distinct gender category, not simply seen as men trying to imitate women. Similarly, other Polynesian cultures have their own versions of third or multiple genders, highlighting the fluidity and diversity of gender constructs in this region.

b. How do these models compare with contemporary transgendered communities and individuals in the United States?

While there are overlaps, there are also significant differences between these historical and cultural models of multiple genders and contemporary transgender communities and individuals in the United States:

• Self-Identification vs. Cultural Role: In many of the examples above, the third gender identity is often tied to specific social roles, spiritual beliefs, and community recognition. While self-identification is crucial, there is also a cultural framework that acknowledges and often integrates these individuals. In contrast, while self-identification is paramount for transgender individuals in the US, the broader societal recognition and integration are still ongoing struggles.

• Spectrum of Identities: Contemporary transgender discourse in the US emphasizes a broader spectrum of gender identities beyond a binary and often beyond specific third gender categories. This includes non-binary, genderfluid, and other identities that may not neatly fit into the historical examples. While the historical examples demonstrate a move beyond a strict binary, the contemporary US understanding often involves a more individualized and fluid understanding of gender.

• Relationship to Sexuality: In some of the historical examples, gender identity and sexual orientation are intertwined or less distinctly categorized than in contemporary Western thought. For instance, a Two-Spirit person might have relationships with individuals of the same biological sex, but their gender identity is the primary defining factor. In the US, transgender identity is understood as separate from sexual orientation (a transgender woman can be attracted to men, women, or other genders).

• Impact of Colonization and Westernization: The historical third gender categories in India, Native America, and Polynesia have often faced suppression and misunderstanding due to colonization and the imposition of Western binary gender systems. Contemporary transgender communities in the US are navigating a society still largely structured around a binary, but they are also actively working to challenge and expand these norms within their own cultural context.

• Medicalization: In the US, the experience of being transgender is often medicalized, with access to hormone therapy and surgeries playing a significant role for some individuals in their transition. While some traditional third gender roles might involve physical alterations (like the voluntary castration of some Hijras), it is often embedded within a cultural and spiritual context rather than primarily a medical one.

c. Finally, based on the information you acquired in class materials and guest panel, what concept or idea have you learned about the LGBTQIA community that you did not know beforehand?

(As I don't have access to your specific class materials and guest panel, I will provide a general example of a concept someone might learn that challenges prior assumptions):

One concept I might have learned is the diversity of experiences within the LGBTQIA+ community. Beforehand, I might have held a more monolithic view, grouping individuals under a single umbrella. However, learning about the distinct histories, challenges, and cultural nuances within the lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, intersex, and asexual communities, as well as the importance of the "A" representing allies, has been eye-opening. For example, understanding the specific struggles faced by transgender individuals regarding legal recognition and healthcare access, which differ significantly from the fight for marriage equality within the gay and lesbian community, highlights this internal diversity. Similarly, learning about the experiences of intersex individuals and the complexities surrounding medical interventions in infancy has broadened my understanding beyond the more commonly discussed identities. The guest panel likely provided personal narratives that further illuminated this multifaceted reality.

2. Gender Stratification (30 points)

a. What is gender stratification?

Gender stratification refers to the hierarchical ranking of men and women and the differential access to resources, power, prestige, and opportunities based on their gender. It is a form of social inequality where gender serves as a primary basis for social differentiation and the unequal distribution of societal rewards. This stratification is not simply about biological differences but is a socially constructed system that varies across cultures and time periods.

b. What kinds of societies are most likely to have rigid gender stratification?

Societies that tend to exhibit more rigid gender stratification often share several characteristics:

• Agricultural Societies with Plow Agriculture: Anthropologist Ester Boserup argued that the adoption of plow agriculture in some societies led to a greater division of labor where men took on the more physically demanding tasks of plowing, while women's roles became more confined to the domestic sphere and childcare. This economic division could lead to a devaluation of women's contributions and increased gender inequality.
• Societies with Strong Patriarchal and Patrilineal Systems: As discussed below, these systems often emphasize male authority, inheritance through the male line, and male control over resources and decision-making, inherently leading to gender stratification.
• Societies with a Sharp Dichotomy Between Public and Private Spheres: When men's roles are primarily associated with the valued public sphere (politics, economy, warfare) and women's roles are confined to the less valued private sphere (home, family), this can reinforce gender inequality.
• Societies with Ideologies that Justify Gender Inequality: Cultural beliefs, religious doctrines, and social norms that portray men as inherently superior or women as naturally suited for subordinate roles can solidify rigid gender stratification.
• Societies with Limited Economic Opportunities for Women: When women have restricted access to education, paid employment, and control over economic resources, their social and political power tends to be diminished, reinforcing their subordinate status.

c. What ideas have been put forward to explain cross-cultural variation in gender stratification?

Several theoretical perspectives attempt to explain the diverse patterns of gender stratification observed across cultures:

• Biological Determinism: This perspective argues that inherent biological differences between men and women (e.g., physical strength, reproductive roles) naturally lead to different social roles and ultimately to stratification. However, anthropological evidence overwhelmingly demonstrates the significant influence of culture in shaping gender roles and the wide variation in these roles across societies, challenging a purely biological explanation.
• Cultural Materialism: This approach emphasizes the role of economic and environmental factors in shaping social organization, including gender roles and stratification. As mentioned with Boserup's theory on plow agriculture, the mode of production and the division of labor are seen as key determinants of gender relations.
• Social Constructionism: This perspective highlights the ways in which gender roles and inequalities are socially created and maintained through cultural norms, socialization processes, and symbolic systems. Gender is not seen as a natural or fixed category but as a fluid and culturally specific construct.
• Intersectionality: This framework emphasizes that gender inequality is not experienced in isolation but intersects with other forms of social stratification, such as race, class, and sexuality. The experiences of women and men differ depending on their position within these intersecting hierarchies.
• Power and Authority: This perspective focuses on how power imbalances between men and women in various social domains (e.g., political, economic, domestic) contribute to and maintain gender stratification. Dominant groups (often men) may create and perpetuate ideologies and structures that reinforce their power.

d. How is this linked to patriarchal/patrilineal systems? Please provide examples from your Canvas module.

Patriarchal and patrilineal systems are strongly linked to rigid gender stratification.

• Patriarchal systems are social systems where men hold primary power and authority in political, economic, familial, and social spheres. This often translates to men having greater control over resources, decision-making, and social status, leading to the subordination of women.
• Patrilineal systems are kinship systems where descent and inheritance are traced through the male line. This often means that property, status, and family identity are passed down from fathers to sons, further concentrating power and resources in the hands of men and limiting women's access and control.

Examples from a hypothetical Canvas module:

• Example 1 (Patriarchal): A case study of a traditional agricultural society where men own the land and make all major decisions regarding farming practices and the sale of crops. Women's labor on the farm might be essential, but they have no ownership rights or say in economic matters. Their primary roles are often seen as domestic and reproductive, reinforcing their subordinate status in the public sphere.
• Example 2 (Patrilineal): An example of a lineage-based society where inheritance of land, livestock, and social status passes exclusively from fathers to sons. Daughters may receive a dowry upon marriage but do not inherit family property. This system reinforces male dominance in the economic and social structure across generations.
• Example 3 (Linkage): An analysis of a society with both patriarchal and patrilineal structures, such as the traditional Indian family system (as discussed in the context of arranged marriage in some modules). Men are typically the heads of households, hold authority in family matters, and inherit property through the male line. Women, upon marriage, often move into their husband's family and have less autonomy and control over resources compared to men. The cultural emphasis on male lineage and authority reinforces gender inequality within the family and the wider society.

3. Marriage Systems (30 points)

a. Please define the two types of polygamous marriage identified in anthropology.

Polygamy, meaning "many spouses," has two main forms:

• Polygyny: This is the marriage of one man to two or more women at the same time. It is the more common form of polygamy cross-culturally.

Sample Answer

1. Gender Identity (40 points)

a. Describe the cultural construction of multiple gender identities around the world. Be sure to include examples from India, Native Americans, and Polynesia.

Across the globe, cultures have constructed understandings of gender that extend beyond the binary of male and female. These identities are not solely based on biological sex but are shaped by social roles, spiritual beliefs, and historical contexts.

• India: The Hijra community in India represents a third gender. While often assigned male at birth, Hijras identify as neither man nor woman. They often occupy a unique social and religious space, participating in ceremonies like weddings and births, where they are believed to possess special powers. Their gender identity is often linked to devotion to the goddess Bahuchara Mata. Historically, Hijras held important roles in royal courts, but they have also faced marginalization and discrimination in contemporary society. Their identity is a complex interplay of spirituality, social role, and a sense of self that transcends the male/female binary.

• Native Americans: Many Native American cultures historically recognized Two-Spirit individuals. This term encompasses a wide range of gender and sexual identities. Two-Spirits were often seen as having both male and female spirits within them and were highly respected for their unique perspectives and spiritual gifts. They could take on roles and responsibilities traditionally associated with both men and women within their communities, such as warriors, healers, artists, and spiritual leaders. The specific roles and understandings of Two-Spirits varied significantly between different tribes. For example, in some tribes, they might engage in same-sex relationships, while in others, their gender identity was distinct from their sexual orientation. The impact of colonization has significantly disrupted these traditions, but Two-Spirit identity is experiencing a revival in many Native American communities today.